Introduction

It is very difficult to define a specific apologetic literary genre. However, the writings selected for this study are considered to be apologetic in nature by the majority of scholars. Traditionally, apologetic writing is understood to be directed to a readership which is outside the faith to defend the Christian faith against other belief systems. However the writings also have a use to educate Christian believers and to strengthen their faith, so they can live effective Christian lives in a hostile environment.

The following writings will be described in this study:
Aristides: Apology (c. AD 125), and The Epistle to Diognetus (c. AD 130)
Justin Martyr: First Apology (c. 150 - 155)
Athenagoras: Plea for Christians (AD 177 - 180)
Irenaeus: Against Heresies. Book III (c. AD 180)
Tertullian: Apology (AD 197)
Minucius Felix: Octavius (c. AD 200)

In this selection of Christian apologetic writers, some specifically address people or groups outside the faith. These include the Letter to Diognetus and Minucius Felix, which defend the Christian faith against paganism. Others, such as Aristides, Athenagoras, Tertullian and Justin Martyr make a plea to the Roman authorities for just treatment of persecuted Christians. Whether or not these were ever actually read by the governing authorities is impossible to determine. Others were written to defend the faith against false teaching within the church, including Irenaeus, who wrote his Against Heresies to defend the faith against various Gnostic groups. There are also a small number of other writings from this period to defend the Christian faith against Judaism, including Justin Martyr’s Against Trypho. Among this selection, Aristides has a short section in which he shows the weakness in Judaism (Apology 14), and the Epistle to Diognetus gives a short criticism of the superstitions and legalism of the Jews (Epistle 3-4).

The earlier of these authors wrote in Greek, including Aristides, the Epistle to Diognetus, Athenagoras and Irenaeus, while the later authors wrote in Latin, the language of the western church, including Minucius Felix and Tertullian.

Aristides of Athens - Apology

This short work was presumed lost for many years, until copies were discovered in the nineteenth century in Armenia and Sinai, as well as one included in an Indian writing. Aristides described himself as an Athenian philosopher, and addressed his apology to the Emperor Hadrian, probably around AD 125, making it one of the earliest of the writings of the fathers. He brings a plea to the emperor for the Christians to be treated justly during a time of persecution.

He compares four different religions, showing the superiority of Christianity. His main argument is based on God being the Creator of the heavens and the earth. The beauty and orderliness of the world proves there must be an all-powerful, all-knowing and perfect Creator. The unseen mover of the world must be greater than the world (Apology 1). The barbarians worship gods and images of creation, which are powerless and therefore unable to come to the help of mankind (Apology 3-7). The Greek gods are sexually immoral, and guilty of other crimes such as murder. They even breaking the laws of the Greeks, and are therefore a bad example to people, who will naturally follow their immoral ways (Apology 8-11). The Jews worship the true God, but not perfectly, worshipping angels, and legalistically keeping special days (Apology 14). By contrast, the Christians trust in the Creator of heaven and earth, which leads to them to live moral lives of the highest standards, and caring for others in need. He gives an inspiring description of the Christian lifestyle (Apology 15-16), demonstrating both love for God and love for their neighbour.

His approach is similar to that of Paul when he was preaching the Gospel to Gentiles in Lystra (Acts 14:15-17), and in Athens (Acts 17:22-31). Rather than quoting scripture, describing miracles or fulfilled prophecy, he makes his plea on the basis of creation. However, towards the end he does urge the emperor to read the Christian writings for himself (Apology 16).

Aristides has a very logical approach, describing in turn the objects of worship in other religious systems, and showing the inadequacies in each of them. He is respectful, and never resorts to sarcasm or insults. He pleas for just treatment of the Christians, who are facing slander and unspecified false accusations, and describes how the Christians show compassion on their persecutors, and pray for their repentance and conversion to Christianity. He gives a very appealing description of Christians, presenting the truth in a very attractive way.

Text of Aristides Apology

Epistle of Mathetes to Diognetus

This work is in the form of a letter from an unknown author who refers to himself as ‘Mathetes’, a disciple of the apostles (Mathetes 11). It is written to a Gentile, called Diognetus, who is inquiring about the Christian faith. The use of the title “most excellent” would suggest that he is of a high social or political status, similar to Theophilus (Lk 1:3). The date of writing is also unknown, but was while the faith was still a recent development (Epistle 1). The final two chapters (Epistle 11-12) are probably not part of the original composition, but appear to be a Christian homily.

The letter carefully answers three questions posed by Diognetus (Epistle 1). His first question is about the God the Christians worship, and why they reject the worship of Greek gods and Jewish superstitions. This is answered by pointing out the futility of worshipping idols which are made of the same material as everyday objects, have no life, and even need to be guarded (Epistle 2). The Jews are right in worshipping the same God, but God has no need of their sacrifices, and their legalisms are childish folly (Epistle 3-4).

The second question is why the Christians have such a strong affection for each other. He answers this by describing the faith and lifestyle of the Christians (Epistle 5-7). Christians in the world are like the soul within the body, dispersed around the world. They are hated by the world, but are preserving the world. They are sojourners in the world, awaiting life in heaven. His glowing description is similar to the teaching of Jesus in the Beatitudes (Mt 5:3-16), and that his disciples should live in the world without being of the world (Jn 17:15-16).

The third question is asking why has this new faith has only so recently entered the world. The author answers by describing the coming of the Son of God as Saviour of the world, who is the Word sent by the Creator-God himself (Epistle 8-9). Before he came, men lived in ignorance, but now the true knowledge of God has been revealed through the Son. Only when man’s wickedness had reached its height was the Son was sent as a ransom.

He concludes with an appeal to the reader to respond with love and faith in God, and to become his imitator in caring for the poor and needy, and willingness to suffer (Epistle 10).

Although the author does not quote from Scripture, his writing is filled with biblical truth, as he proclaims the Gospel in a very appealing way, reminiscent of the style and content of Paul’s writing in the New Testament, as well as content from John’s Gospel. He shows the inadequacies of both pagan religion and of Judaism, bringing some strong criticisms, before showing the superiority of the Christian faith and lifestyle. His writing style is very logical, his letter has been being described as “one of the most perfect literary compositions from ancient Christian times”. The author is a preacher combining sound content with a warm appeal to respond in faith. This writing demonstrates that apologetics can quickly move into evangelism. There is only need for a small shift in emphasis to move from apologetics into proclamation, from defending the faith to declaring it.

Text of Epistle of Mathetes

Justin Martyr - First Apology

Justin’s First Apology was probably written in Rome, and addressed to the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius and the Senate around AD 150. He describes it as an “address and petition in behalf of those of all nations who are unjustly hated and wantonly abused” (1 Apology 1). He is calling for just treatment of Christians, who are currently being persecuted and condemned merely for bearing the name of Christian (1 Apology 4). They admit to being atheists in their denial of the gods, but not with respect to the most true God (Apology 1.6). They are good citizens of the empire, and should not be accused of immorality or of being traitors.

Justin includes a long section describing the moral and ethical teaching of Jesus to explain the morality of the kingdom of God (1 Apology 15-17), which contains many quotations from the four Gospels. He also describes several heathen analogies to Christian doctrines, including the resurrection (1 Apology 20), then uses this to argue the injustice of their treatment. If the philosophers teach a similar but more limited message, then why are the Christians persecuted? He also contrasts the Christian message with false teachings spread by magicians, which he says are inspired by demons, including Simon the Magician (1 Apology 26).

He also gives a long description of predictions from the Old Testament which were fulfilled in the life and ministry of Jesus (1 Apology 31-53), beginning with Moses, and including the virgin birth, his rejection by the Jews, crucifixion, resurrection and second coming. He gives a large number of quotations from the Psalms and the prophets, as well as from the New Testament. He even considers the philosophical problem of whether divine predictions removes human responsibility, and gives evidence that God still held humans responsible for their actions (1 Apology 43).

He also emphasises the antiquity of Moses, who is older than all writers (1 Apology 54), and to whom Plato is in debt, and describes the activity of demons to mislead people, cause persecution and raise up heretics (1 Apology 55-58).

He contains more quotation of Scripture, and more theological teaching than many of the other apologists. He even shows an early understanding of the activity of all three members of the Trinity in Creation (1 Apology 60). He gives a brief description of Christian worship and sacraments (1 Apology 61, 65-67), probably to answer accusations of secrecy which were often made against Christians. He concludes with a strong warning of judgement to his readers if they continue in their injustice (1 Apology 68).

Through his writing Justin expresses himself with great fervour and earnestness, as a godly man seeking just treatment for his fellow Christians. However his style of writing is more mediocre, including some factual errors like the historical error of Ptolemy sending messages to Herod (1 Apology 31). Sometimes his quotations of Scripture were not totally relevant to the point he was making (1 Apology 35, 40). Perhaps his love for the Scriptures overrode his logical thinking at those points. The structure of Justin’s apology is difficult to determine, as he often jumps off into digressions, without necessarily returning to his main point afterwards. At other times he returns to an earlier point making his work seem rather disjointed.

Text of Justin Martyr First Apology

Athenagoras - Plea for Christians

Athenagoras addresses his plea to the two Roman Emperors, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, who jointly ruled from AD 177 to 180. He also addresses them as philosophers. He makes a plea that the Christians be treated justly and impartially by the authorities, and answers false accusations made against them.

The longest section answers the false charge of atheism (Plea 3-30), which he describes as a popular and irrational charge (Plea 11), since Christians worship one uncreated God, the Maker of the universe, who is also acknowledged by Greek poets, and praised by the Hebrew prophets. Besides him, there is no room for a second or other gods. It is absurd to accuse people of being atheists, when they acknowledge the almighty God, together with his Son - the Logos, and the Holy Spirit, and live highly moral lives. The Christian God is distinct from matter, being the Creator of matter, while the gods are part of matter, and a recent invention by humans. The gods are represented in an absurd manner and act in immoral ways, and men are drawn to worship images and offer blood sacrifices by demons.

Christians are also unjustly accused of impious feasts and sexual immorality (Plea 31). This is an example of vice making war on virtue, as Christians have far more moral and pure lifestyles than their accusers. They are even accused of cannibalism, when actually they oppose all cruelty, murder, abortion and exposing of children (Plea 35). Christians live moral lives because they are accountable to God, and expect a future judgement and resurrection. Christians are loyal citizens and pray for the emperor, so ask to be judged fairly and not on the basis of false accusations.

Athenagoras was one of the few writers who quoted Scripture when writing to a pagan audience. He also proved his case by quoting the writings of the Greek poets and philosophers, showing they also speak of One Creator God, contrasted by the weakness and immorality of the pagan gods, which are mere human inventions, or simply men. He refutes false accusations by pointing out inconsistences, and the dangers of judgement in ignorance by looking only at external actions. For example, the reason Christians do not offer sacrifices is because God does not need them, not because they are atheists who do not believe in any God (Plea 13).

Text of Athenagoras Plea for Christians

Irenaeus - Against Heresies, Book III

Irenaeus was a disciple of Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna (Irenaeus 3:4), and later became bishop of Lyons in Gaul (modern France). This book is the third part of a lengthy five part writing, in which he defends the faith against various Gnostic teachers. Its full name is “The Detection and Overthrow of the Pretended but False Gnosis”. In the first two books he gives an extremely detailed description of gnostic speculations, especially the teaching of Valentinus, which originated with Simon the Magician (Acts 8:9ff). He also countered Gnostic teaching by giving proof that the Creator God of the Old Testament, called the Demiurge by the Gnostics, is the same as the God and Father of the New Testament.

In his third book he aims to refute the heretics, bringing his proofs from the Scriptures. His writing is full of quotations of the New Testament to support his defence of the Gospel. He also makes great emphasis on apostolic tradition, that the Gospel has been passed down a line of bishops from the original apostles and eye-witnesses of Jesus, whereas the heresies have only begun recently, and cannot trace their origin back to the apostles (Irenaeus 3:3-4). Both Jesus and the apostles proclaimed one God, not mentioning any other God, or Demiurge (Irenaeus 3:5), and no other God was spoken of by the Holy Spirit in the Scriptures (Irenaeus 3:6). This is also proved in the writings of the apostles. He was extremely familiar with the Scriptures, making effective use of quotations to support his point, systematically working through the books of the New Testament (Irenaeus 3:9-12). He opposed the teaching of Marcion by proving that Paul was not the only true apostle, and that others were also witnesses of the truth (Irenaeus 3:13). He also used the Scriptures to prove that Jesus was both fully divine and fully human (Irenaeus 3:16, 22), and to reject the Gnostic teaching that the Christ descended on Jesus at his baptism (Irenaeus 3:17), or that Jesus was a mere man (Irenaeus 3:19). Against the teaching of the Ebionites, who claimed that Jesus was merely the son of Joseph, he shows the truth of the virgin birth as fulfilment of prophecy (Irenaeus 3:21).

Irenaeus did include some slightly strange teaching, including that Adam and Eve were created as children, so could not procreate. Ideas such as these could have led to the later teaching that original sin was transmitted by sexual relations. He even claimed that the obedience of Mary reversed the disobedience of Eve (Irenaeus 3:22.4). This teaching on the role of the Virgin Mary would lay the foundation for some characteristic Roman Catholic doctrines of later centuries. His emphasis on apostolic succession could be seen as leading to the claim of papal supremacy in later centuries.

At some points he moves into sarcasm, or even humour, to show the folly of much of Gnostic teaching. He had great confidence in the truth of Scripture, and was clearly highly skilled at expounding it, selecting the relevant passages to refute the false teachers. Irenaeus was an important figure in the defence of the Gospel when it was under severe threat from false teaching, and laid a strong foundation of doctrine for future generations. His final prayer is that by bringing the instruction of Christ he may succeed in persuading the false teachers to abandon their error and blasphemy of God the Creator (Irenaeus 3:25.7), so his work also has a strong evangelistic intention.

Minucius Felix - Octavius

This is one of the earliest Christian writings in Latin. It is in the form of a narrative describing a dialogue between Octavius, a Christian, and his educated pagan friend Caecilius. The author is referred to as Marcus, who becomes the arbitrator between the two during their debate (Felix 4). The setting is a walk on the beach during a visit to the seaside city of Ostia, when controversy is triggered by Caecilius honouring a statue of Serapis with a kiss (Octavius 2).

Caecilius is the first to speak (Octavius 5-13). He criticises the uneducated Christians for being so certain when truth seems to be so hidden, and points out that Rome has become strong through the worship of their gods. All nations have their own gods, and it is best to perpetuate the worship of them, as when the gods are ignored trouble and calamity follows. He then makes an unjustified attack on Christian morals (Octavius 9), even accusing them of drinking the blood of an infant. He criticises their worship of a crucified criminal, their secrecy, and the illogicality of the resurrection (Octavius 10-11), and concludes by rejecting any new religion.

In response, Octavius carefully and respectfully counters each of Caecilius’ arguments in turn (Octavius 14-38). He argues from the design of the heavens and earth for the existence of one Almighty God as Creator and Sustainer, who is even acknowledged by the Greek poets. The Greek gods are only mere men adopted as gods, limited in power, and worshipped by obscene and cruel rites. The Roman Empire had been built through violence, and being sacrilegious rather than worshipping the gods. Demons are behind the worship of gods, as well as the accusations and persecution of Christians. He corrects the false rumours and accusations against the Christians. They do worship a crucified man, but he was innocent. It is the pagans who drink blood and participate in orgies, not the Christians. The Creator God does not need temples or images, so Christians are not being secretive. Even the final burning up of the world is logical - what had a beginning must have an end. The outcome of the debate is that Caecilius is convinced by the arguments made by Octavius and decides to believe, and yields to God (Octavius 40).

Octavius continually uses reason and logic to refute the claims made by Caecilius. He corrects the false rumours, and shows that the Christian faith is not illogical or immoral, but is perfectly reasonable. The approach is more academic than the Epistle to Diognetus, so one is left wondering whether this was an intellectual exercise for Caecilius, rather than leading to true repentance and faith. No reference is made to Scripture, or to any events in the life of Christ, apart answering accusations concerning the crucifixion and resurrection.

The Octavius is recognised by scholars as “the masterpiece of an able writer”. The dialogue is lively and some strong emotions and opinions are expressed, without any degeneration into insult or sarcasm. Of all the writings described in this essay, this is the only one where the result of the apology is described, that an opponent of Christianity comes to acknowledge God.

Tertullian - Apology

The fiery Tertullian was one of first important writers in the Latin-speaking church. His Apology was written in AD 197, and is addressed to the rulers of the Roman Empire. Tertullian’s main method of defence is legal. He demonstrated his great understanding of Roman law to challenge the legality of the persecution of Christians, and to proclaim the injustice of the widespread hatred of the Christian name, which he says comes through ignorance (Apology 1-3).

He answers other unjust accusations, including cannibalism - killing and eating a little child, as well as incest (Apology 7-9), showing that there is no legal proof for these outrageous accusations. He also corrects the popular belief that the God of the Christians and Jews is an ass’s head, and that they worship the cross or the sun (Apology 16).

The main charge that he answers is that of sacrilege, because Christians did not worship the Greek gods (Apology 10-27), and the related charge of treason for not offering sacrifices for the emperor (Apology 28-45). He argues that the gods were merely humans made into gods, so they must believe in one higher God - the dealer in divinity (Apology 11). He also exposes the folly of idolatry (Apology 12-14) using a similar sarcasm as Isaiah (Is 44). In response, he gives a detailed explanation of Christian beliefs, including the identity of the One True God, the Creator (Apology 17), the revelation received through the Scriptures, particularly the prophets (Apology 18), and the events of the ministry, crucifixion and resurrection of Christ (Apology 21), claiming confirmation of historical events from Roman archives. Even though Jesus only came relatively recently, the roots of Christianity are ancient (Apology 19). He includes a personal appeal to his reader to search and see if the divinity of Christ is true, which, when accepted, transforms a man, making him truly good (Apology 21). Christians are not guilty of treason as they pray to the eternal living God for the safety of the emperor (Apology 30), and for the stability of the empire, because the empire is holding off the end of the world (Apology 32).

As well as answering evil charges against Christianity, he also explains its positive good (Apology 39), its higher moral standards, honourable practices, and good citizenship. Christians are accused merely on the ground of their name, and blamed for every catastrophe by the general population (Apology 40), not because they have committed any crime (Apology 45). He ends by appealing that Christians be treated equally with the philosophers (Apology 46-49), who are permitted not to sacrifice to the gods, and are even rewarded for speaking against rulers.

Tertullian writes with great intensity and passion, using his legal skills to demonstrate and protest against the injustice that the Christians endure under Roman government, as well as the inconsistencies in that they are treated in completely the opposite way from other people accused of being criminals (Apology 2).

Text of Tertullian Apology

The situation addressed by the Apologists

The apologies were written to address a variety of different situations, including persecution, and defending the faith against other belief systems. These are some of the most prominent reasons the apologies were written.

1. Persecution

All these apologies were written in the early centuries of Christian history, at a time when Christianity was not a recognised legal religion. All groups of people gathering to meet together were automatically considered suspicious by the authorities, being thought of as subversive secret societies. Because of this Christians faced discrimination and potential persecution from the authorities, including several more intense and widespread periods of deliberate persecution.

Several of the apologies were addressed to the Roman authorities, making a plea for just treatment instead of persecution. The apologists made a brave stand against the authorities, risking their lives for speaking out in defence of the Christians. These include Athenagoras, Justin Martyr, and Tertullian.

Both Justin Martyr (1 Apology 4), and Tertullian (Apology 3), protest against the injustice that Christians are accused of a crime merely because of the name ‘Christian’, that they are treated so differently from other people accused of being criminals. Without any investigation, they are declared guilty if they admit the crime of being a Christian and released if they deny it. They point out the irony that believers are tortured to make them deny being Christians, while criminals are tortured to make them confess to their crimes. Effectively, the apologist is standing up for the rights of Christians, appealing for just treatment from the authorities, as Paul did when about to be flogged (Acts 22:25).

2. Defence against paganism

Other apologies were written to make a more intellectual defence of the Christian faith against paganism. These include Minucius Felix in his Octavius, in which he describes a conversation between a Christian and a pagan, as well as the Epistle to Diognetus and the Apology of Aristides. In these, the apologists contrast the popular belief in the Greek gods with the Living God and Creator of the world.

Some apologists, including Aristides (Apology 8-9), give lengthy descriptions of the different Greek gods, showing their grossly immoral behaviour, and that they are mere mortals, bearing children, being wounded and even killed. The gods are also condemned for the way men copy their immoral behaviour. Tertullian uses an interesting argument that because the gods were originally mere men, there must be a god-maker, a dealer in divinity (Apology 11).

3. False teaching

In this selection of apologetic writings, the only one to address false teaching within the church was Irenaeus. As noted above, he gives a lengthy refutation of the various Gnostic groups, and evidence from the Scriptures that the God of the Old Testament is the same God as in the New Testament.

Answering charges against Christianity

In their writings, the apologists answered a variety of different accusations made against the Christians. Some of these were intellectual questions, some were practical issues, while others were no more than malicious rumours.

1. Atheism

Probably the most common accusation made against Christians was they were atheists, which can be surprising accusation to people reading the apologists today, However, because they did not worship the Greek gods, did not visit the temples, and had no images or idols, people believed that they did not worship any god at all.

Several of the apologists answer this charge in their writings. Justin Martyr agrees with the charge, confessing that Christians are atheists concerning the Greek gods, but not in respect to the most true God (1 Apology 6). Christians worship the One True God, the Creator of heaven and earth, who is invisible, and does not need any images or sacrifices. Athenagoras shows that some of the Greek philosophers have also denied the gods, while affirming one God, the Maker of the universe (Plea 4-6). He also shows the inconsistency of the charge, as pagans do not even agree among themselves about the gods, worshipping different gods in different places (Plea 14).

2. Disloyalty to the emperor

This was a more serious charge, which could easily lead to the charge of being a traitor to the empire and the sentence of death. Because Christians did not worship the gods, they did not offer the expected sacrifices to the emperor. This would make them appear unpatriotic, rather than loyal citizens of the empire. Tertullian devotes a substantial part of his apology to answer this important charge, linking it with the charge of being atheists (Apology 10). Christians do not believe that sacrifices to the gods would give any protection to the emperor, but instead they regularly pray to the living God for the emperor (Apology 28-30), in obedience to the Scripture (1 Tim 2:1-2). They also pray for the stability of the empire, believing that the continued existence of the empire holds back the impending end of the world (as 2 Thess 2).

3. Christianity is too recent

Among Greek and Roman thinkers there was great respect for antiquity. The Greek philosophers lived several centuries before Jesus. so Christianity was a relatively new religious movement, so automatically came under suspicion. The apologists answered this question in a number of different ways. The Epistle to Diognetus declared that the reason the Son was sent so late in history so wickedness could reach its height (Epistle 9). Others, such as Tertullian (Apology 21), showed that Christianity actually had great antiquity as its were roots were in Judaism, which was of far greater antiquity than the Greek philosophers, and Justin claimed that even Plato was in debt to Moses (1 Apology 59).

4. Correcting popular misunderstandings

Several of the apologists wrote to correct popular misunderstandings of the Christian faith, particularly concerning Christian worship and morals. In Roman society any group which met together automatically came under suspicion. Christian groups would have been considered to be secret societies, and malicious rumours inevitably circulated about Christian beliefs and practices.

One rather strange popular accusation is that Christians (and Jews) worship a god with the head of an ass. According to Tertullian (Apology 16), this notion was started by the historian, Tacitus, who claimed that the Israelites were guided through the wilderness by wild asses. He also countered accusations that Christians worshipped the cross, or the sun. Perhaps the idea of worshipping an invisible god was so strange to pagan society that the assumption was made that they worshipped the cross, instead of the One who died on it.

Another bizarre and shocking accusation was that of cannibalism. Tertullian notes that Christians are accused of observing a holy ritual in which they kill and eat a child, followed by overturning the lights and practising incest (Apology 7). It is difficult to understand where this idea came from, unless it was from a misunderstanding of the Lord’s Supper, that people believed that Christians actually ate the body of the Son of God.

5. Immorality

Another surprising accusation that was made against the Christians was of sexual immorality, particularly in connection with banquets. Several of the apologists answer this accusation, including Minucius Felix (Octavius 31), who describes the completely modest behaviour at Christian meals, especially when compared with the promiscuous behaviour at Gentile feasts. Banquets in Roman times were usually followed by promiscuous sex, so the popular assumption would be that Christian feasts followed this example. The Epistle to Diognetus stated the difference clearly, “they (the Christians) have a common table, but not a common bed” (Epistle 5).

Positive arguments for Christianity

There are two aspects of apologetic writing. The first aspect is polemics, in which opposing religions or philosophies are criticised, and their weaknesses and inconsistencies are exposed. Several of the apologists have a strong focus on this, including Aristides, who exposes the corrupt and immoral behaviour of the Greek gods (Apology 8;11).

The second aspect is more truly apologetic, when the writer presents a more positive argument for the truth of his position. Most of the apologists present positive arguments for the truth of the Christian faith, which are listed below.

Among the Greek apologists, there is only little theological content, which may explain why the apologetic writings fell into disuse in later centuries. The main theological focus was on the existence of one true God, in contrast to the many pagan gods of the Greeks. This answered the major accusation against the Christians of being atheists, which was the reason for much of the persecution faced by the church. The other major emphasis was on the truth of the resurrection, which was such a stumbling block to pagans, but which also brought such hope to the Christians facing persecution.

1. The design of the world

The most common positive argument presented for the truth of Christianity is from the design of the world and the existence of one Creator God. In his reply to Caecilius, Octavius shows that man can only understand himself if he acknowledges almighty God, the supreme artist and creator (Octavius 12f). Looking at the design and workings of nature proves the existence of God. Aristides begins his apology marvelling at the beauty of the world, and realising that the world and everything in it must be moved by the power of another - the almighty, all-powerful, but invisible God (Apology 1).

2. Christian morality

Several of the apologists give detailed descriptions of the high standards of Christian morality. This is in complete contrast to the offenses they are accused of, such as immorality or cannibalism. Some, such as Aristides, contrast Christian morality with the low moral standards of the Greek gods.

Justin Martyr gives a lengthy description of the ethical teaching of Jesus, much of it drawn from the Sermon on the Mount (1 Apology 15-17). The Epistle to Diognetus describes Christian morality in terms of “turning the other cheek” (Mt 5:39) - they love all men, but are persecuted by all (Epistle 5), they live in the world, as the soul lives in the body, being in the world but not of the world (Jn 17:14-16). Tertullian points out the positive good of Christian society (Apology 39), including their prayer for the emperor, and their care for the poor and needy.

3. Use of Scripture

The two writers who make the greatest use of Scripture are Irenaeus and Justin Martyr. Irenaeus worked systematically through the New Testament to prove that there is no separate God of the Old Testament, in order to counter the claims of the Gnostic teachers. He was writing to people within or on the fringe of the church, to whom the New Testament would already have been respected.

Justin devotes a large proportion of his apology to a detailed description of prophecy in the Old Testament that was fulfilled in the person and ministry of Christ. For Justin, the fulfilment of prophecy was a very important apologetic argument, and one which he considered would be meaningful and a challenge to pagan readers.

The remainder of these writers made surprisingly little use of Scripture, and gave only very scanty description of the person or nature of Christ, or of the Holy Spirit. There is only occasional mention of salvation or redemption, but there are more frequent warnings of the future judgement addressed to their pagan readers, and particularly the persecutors of the church. For example, Justin concludes his apology with a warning to the emperor that he will not escape the coming judgement of God if the injustice against Christians continues (1 Apology 68).

In his Apology, Tertullian (Apology 18,21), described the importance of the Scriptures, and gave a description of the incarnation of Christ and his crucifixion under Pontius Pilate. However this section merely forms part of his explanation of the relatively recent arrival of the Christian faith.

4. Christian sacraments

The only apologist to give any description of church practices, worship or use of sacraments was Justin Martyr (1 Apology 61, 65-67). Probably in order to counter false rumours about Christian worship, he gives information about what actually is practised in baptism and the Eucharist, based on the commands of Jesus as recorded in the Gospels. His description shows the high moral standards of the Christians, the respect given to the writings of the apostles, the honour given in sacred worship, and the care for the poor.

5. Use of historical records

Several of the apologists stressed the historical nature of the Christian faith, that Jesus was crucified during the reign of Tiberius, under Pontius Pilate, events which can be verified from Roman historical records. Tertullian mentions the darkness at the time of the crucifixion, which he says is described in Roman archives (Apology 21), while Justin Martyr refers to the Acts of Pontius Pilate, which confirm the events of the crucifixion, as well as the Roman census records from Bethlehem (1 Apology 34-35).

6. Writings of the Greek philosophers

The apologists vary in their attitude towards Greek religion and philosophy. Some, like Tertullian reject it entirely, describing the immorality of the Greek gods, who he claims are merely humans. Others, such as Justin and Minucius Felix look for pre-Christian insights, to show agreement between Christianity and the philosophers, even using the writings of the philosophers as positive evidence of the Christian faith. Athenagoras (Plea 6) and Minucius Felix (Octavius 19) gave examples of several of the Greek philosophers who spoke of the One Creator God. Justin Martyr even claimed that there were pagan analogies to Christian doctrine, including the resurrection and the virgin birth, and that Plato took the words of Moses (1 Apology 20-22, 59). This argument is similar to Paul proclaiming the “unknown god” in Athens (Acts 17:23). However, the danger in this approach is the potential for confusion, and giving the false impression that all philosophies eventually lead to God, which undermines the uniqueness of the Christian gospel.

Literary style

These writings show a wide range of literary style. Some give a logical defence of the faith against specific accusations, including Tertullian and Aristides. Minucius Felix wrote his Octavius in a narrative style, giving a spoken dialogue between Caecilius and Octavius, ending with a positive outcome.

Some of the writings are well-structured in a logical way, like Athenagoras, and the Letter to Diognetus, who both systematically address the accusations made against Christians, while Justin Martyr’s apology is of rougher construction with several digressions and breaks in thought. Minucius Felix wrote his Octavius in a classical literary style, modelled on earlier Greek writings.

The apologists also vary in the way they respond to their real or imagined opponents. Some, such as Aristides, or the Letter to Diognetus, are respectful of other beliefs. They argue by showing their inadequacy, and then proclaim the truth of the Christian belief, but can appear to lack emotion or personal conviction. Others, such as Minucius Felix, have more emotion and persuasiveness, but without being aggressive. While others, especially Tertullian, are far more aggressive, and even sarcastic towards opposing viewpoints.

Some writers were effective at turning accusations back on the accusers. Christians were being accused of immorality, when actually the pagans are the ones who are immoral, not the Christians, an argument which is used by Octavius (Octavius 31). Several of the apologists resort to sarcasm to expose the folly of worshipping idols and images. Tertullian (Apology 12) uses a similar argument to Isaiah (Is 44:9-17) to contrast non-living idols, which are made by humans, with the Living God. The idols are burned, sawn and rasped, in the same way that the Christians are persecuted. He also laughs at the way Christians are blamed for everything (Apology 40), every disaster is blamed on the Christians.

What we can learn for today

The writings of these early apologists leave us with several lessons to apply into today’s situation.

Firstly, they show the need to correct popular misunderstandings of the Christian faith. In early centuries Christians were accused of various practices and beliefs which were totally untrue, but which had arisen through ignorance, mis-understanding, or judging by external actions. These included being atheists, worshipping a god with the head of an ass, being immoral and being involved in cannibalism. Although Christians are not normally accused of these things today, there are other popular mis-understandings which need correcting. One is that in popular thinking, Christians are either thought of as weak and incapable of living life without a prop, or otherwise of being self-righteous and proud. Both of these come from a wrong understanding of the Gospel, that Christians are not made right with God through good works, but by repentance and faith.

Another lesson is how to present and defend the faith in a multi-cultural, multi-religious, post-modern society, where tolerance is exalted above all else. The religious situation in the pagan world of the Roman Empire has many similarities to today, with a market-place of religions and belief-systems for people to pick and choose from. Great skill is needed to defend and present the Christian faith to avoid the charge of being intolerant. Christian apologetics needs to show the inadequacies of alternative religious systems, without being offensive or abusive. Some of the apologists, like Minucius Felix, were able to present the certainty of the Christian faith without being intolerant. In today’s world certainty of belief is greatly needed, even though it is widely resented.

Some apologists, like Justin and Tertullian, made a brave legal defence of the Christian faith in the face of persecution. They did not hold back from standing up for the rights of believers, making a protest against the unjust treatment they received from the authorities. There are many nations in the world today where this sort of brave stand is much needed.

The writing of Irenaeus gives another important lesson for today, that to be successful in apologetics, and to stand against the teaching of false teachers, it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge and understanding of their teaching. Irenaeus was able to use their jargon and knew the names of all the intermediaries they taught about, as well as the characteristic teaching of each of the various gnostic sects. He was able to point out contradictions and inconsistencies in their teaching, and to show that their interpretation of scripture is incorrect. Today we need people who understand other religions and belief systems thoroughly, whether Islam or New Age spirituality, so they can present convincing arguments of the superiority of the Christian faith.