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The books of Ezra and Nehemiah were a single book in the Hebrew Scriptures. They were separated when the Scriptures were translated into the Greek Septuagint (LXX). They were not separated in the Hebrew Scriptures until the second or third century AD.

The opening verses of Ezra (1:1-3) repeat the closing verses of 2 Chronicles (36:22-23). This suggests that Ezra and Nehemiah form the conclusion of the history compiled by the person known as The Chronicler. Jewish tradition says Ezra is the author of Ezra and 1 and 2 Chronicles, and Nehemiah was the author of Nehemiah.

Date

The list of high priests in Neh 12:10-11,22 continues to the High Priest Jaddua. According to Josephus (Ant 11:8:4), someone called Jaddua was High Priest during the time of Alexander the Great, around 330 BC. If these were the same person, the date would be as late as 330 BC. However the traditional date for these books is during the time of Ezra, after which the Jews considered the canon to be closed.

Sources

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah are a compilation of material from different sources, rather than a single narrative. These include memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah, written in first person (Ezra 7-9, Neh 1:1 - 7:73a, 11:1-2, 12:31 - 13:31), incidents in the lives of Ezra and Nehemiah, written in third person. The books also include letters to Persian kings from the opposition, and replies from the king. There is a letter from Rehum and Shimshai to Artaxerxes (4:7-16), a reply from Artaxerxes (4:17-22), and a letter from Tattenai to Darius (5:6-17). They also include official decrees from Persian kings (1:2-4, 6:3-12 from Cyrus). There are also genealogies, a list of returning exiles (Ezra 2, Neh 7), and prayers.

Two sections of Ezra are in Aramaic (4:8 - 6:18, 7:12-26), which are mostly official letters to Persia and decrees. Aramaic was the language of the Arameans (Syrians) which became the diplomatic language of the Ancient Near East up until the time of Christ. The compiler probably had access to copies of these decrees and letters.

1 Esdras

1 Esdras, one of the books in the Apocrypha, is a Greek version of 2 Chr 35-36, Ezra, and Neh 8:1-12, with substantial additions and alterations. Some of its history is confused. This is a different book from the Greek translation of Ezra/Nehemiah found in the Septuagint (LXX), which are normally known as 1 and 2 Esdras. The apocryphal version is known as Esdras, and called 3 Esdras in the Latin Vulgate.

History

There are two distinct periods covered in the two books: The first is from 539 to 516 BC. This describes the first return from exile, led by Sheshbazzar, the rebuilding the temple under Zerubbabel and Jeshua, and the ministry of the prophets, Haggai and Zechariah. The second period of history is from 458 to 432 BC, which covers the second return led by Ezra, the third return led by Nehemiah, the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem, and the ministry of the prophet Malachi. The book of Ezra covers both periods (Ezra 1-6, 7-10), the book of Nehemiah covers the second period only, and the book of Esther comes between the two (478 BC)

The dates of Ezra and Nehemiah are still debated. Some date Ezra after Nehemiah, saying he returned under the reign of Artaxerxes II, in 398 BC.

Contemporary Documents

The Cyrus Cylinder describes how Cyrus captured Babylon and returned the captive peoples to their own lands, together with their gods. To see a photograph of the Cyrus Cylinder and for further information, see the Persian Gallery in the British Museum.

The Elephantine Papyri include copies of letters written in Aramaic sent to and from a Jewish colony in Upper Egypt, at the end of the fifth century BC. Elephantine are a group of islands in the Nile, looking rather like an elephant. This colony were descendants of those Jews who escaped to Egypt after the murder of Gedaliah, taking Jeremiah with them. They built a temple to Anat-Yahweh, the wife of Yahweh. In them, there are references to several people who are prominent in Ezra and Nehemiah. One is Sanballat and his sons, during the reign of Artaxerxes I (465 - 424 BC). Bigvai (Bagoas), governor of Jerusalem, received a letter from Elephantine in 400 BC. Enia as governor of Samaria is also mentioned, which indicates the beginning of the political division between Judea and Samaria. Johanan son of Eliashib as high priest (Ezra 10:6, Neh 12:22-23) received a message from Elephantine in 408 BC.

The hand of God

'The hand of God' is a recurring expression in the narrative about Ezra (7:6,9, 8:18,22,31) and in the narrative of Nehemiah (Neh 2:8,18), during the reign of Artaxerxes. It is probably a allusion to Artaxerxes's title, 'Longimanus', which he chose for himself, meaning 'of the long hand'. He chose this title to show that his hand was on many distant nations. Ezra used this expression to show that the Israelites were under the greater and more powerful outstretched hand of God, in contrast to Artaxerxes.

Life-situation of Exiles in Babylon (Heb: 'Golah' - Ezek 1:1, 3:15)

Two sides are seen in OT. One is the sadness and suffering expressed in Ps 137, by those longing for place of worship in Jerusalem (Zion). However they had a good life in Babylon, if people were not interested in worshipping God. Many stayed behind, enjoying the good life. Some had political influence, like Nehemiah being cup-bearer to king, and there were opportunities to prosper in business.

Some of the exiles became rich, so they could give gold and silver to those returning to Jerusalem (Ezra 1:6). The building fund grew to 61,000 darics of gold, 5000 minas of silver (Persian coins) (2:68). The exiles brought back 7337 servants / slaves from Babylon, as well as many singers and animals (2:65). Earlier Jeremiah had written a letter to the exiles, telling them to settle in Babylon (Jer 29). Josephus wrote: "yet did many of them stay at Babylon, as not willing to leave their possessions" (Ant 11:3:8). Out of the two to three million Jews in Persia, only about 50,000 returned with Zerubbabel. Those who returned from exile were those whose spirit God had stirred (1:5).

Location of exiles

Some of the leading exiles were in the city of Babylon, including King Jehoiachin (2 Kg 24:15, 25:27), and Daniel, who was first prominent in the Babylonian court, then in the Persian court. Others were settled in different colonies near to Babylon. Ezekiel was among the exiles at Tel-Abib, by the river Chebar, a canal near Babylon (Ezek 1:1, 3:15). Nippur was a major trading centre, was the location of the first known bank in human history, started by the Murashu family, mentioned on clay tablets. These tablets list sixty Jewish names from the time of Artaxerxes I, and forty from the time of Darius II, who were trading partners with Murashu, royal officials, or collectors of taxes. There seems to have been no social or commercial barriers between the Jews and the Babylonians. There were other Jewish colonies in Tel-melah, Tel-harsha, Cherub, Addan, Immer (Ezra 2:59, Neh 7:61), and Casiphia (Ezra 8:17).

Jeremiah wrote to the exiles (who he refers to as the good figs) to settle down (Jer 29). His letter was addressed to remaining elders, priests, prophets and all people (v1). This indicates that the cultural and social identity of the exiles was maintained, as well as the leadership and organisation of their society and nation. The elders of Judah are also mentioned (Ezek 8:1, 14:1, 20:1)

The genealogies of the returning exiles show that the family lines were kept distinct (Ezra 3, Neh 7). Most people could still prove their genealogy (Ezra 2:1-58, Neh 7:6-60), only a minority were not able to (Ezra 2:59-62) so were excluded from serving in the priesthood (Neh 7:61-65).

Jewish religious developments in Babylon

Babylon was considered unclean. However there may have been a limited substitute worship of Yahweh carried out in Babylon, but it could not be the real thing. The only place to worship Yahweh was in Zion, which meant that desire to worship Yahweh was the only incentive to return to Jerusalem. Ezra found some priests in Casiphia (Ezra 8:15-20). Perhaps the professional religious people had congregated at one site, as there were no Levitical priests among the group of exiles with Ezra (v15).

In the absence of the central sanctuary, the outward religious signs would have become very important. Circumcision was not part of Babylonian religion, so would have become a distinguishing mark of the Jews. Ezekiel emphasises the keeping of the Sabbath (Ezek 20:12, 22:26, 33:28). The exilic prophets would have been most important to the Jews, in keeping their faith alive, bringing the word of the Lord to the people, especially Ezekiel, who saw a vision of the glory of God in Babylon.

The popular view of the ancient near east was that if an empire conquers you, their god must be stronger than your god. See the Holy War page. But through the teaching of the prophets, the God of Israel was shown not to be weaker, but the exile was a result of the disobedience of God's people. This is demonstrated particularly in Ezek 16,20,23, where Ezekiel gives a history of the people's attitude to the Lord.

The prophets had also predicted a seventy year exile, followed by restoration, calling the people to repentance and promising salvation to those who repent. Ezekiel had a vision of dry bones, which was given to the exiles in Babylon (Ezek 37). The interpretation is that the bones are the whole house of Israel (37:11-14). This gave hope for the whole nation, not just Judah. (also 34:17ff, 37:15ff, 40-48). Isaiah also addressed the people in exile (Is 40 - 55), predicting a highway to return - a second exodus. He also describes the procession of returning exiles across the desert (43:14-20, 49:8-13, 52:7-12). The return from exile is linked with the coming of the anointed one (Messiah), Cyrus. He was also described as an eagle (Is 46:11), the victor from east (41:2), and the shepherd (44:28).

Situation in Palestine

The situation for those left in the land was very difficult, with many hardships: high taxes, forced labour (Lam 5:4-5), child labour (5:13), raids by nomadic tribes and no protection by Babylonians (5:9).

Persians' policy of religious tolerance

The Persians integrated a great diversity of peoples into a single administrative system, while being able to maintain respect for the local customs and beliefs. The Persians allowed the political and religious identity of captured peoples to be maintained. They allowed people to worship their own gods and observe the proper forms of their own religions. We should not think that Cyrus had become a real believer in the One True God. Cyrus identified himself with the people he had conquered by claiming allegiance to Marduk and the other Babylonian gods.

These are his words recorded on the Cyrus Cylinder
"I returned to these sacred cities ... the sanctuaries of which have been in ruins for a long time, the images which used to live therein and established for them permanent sanctuaries. I also gathered all their former inhabitants and return to them their habitations ...

May all the gods whom I have resettled in their sacred cities asked daily Bel and Nebo for a long life for me ..., to Marduk my lord, may they say this, "Cyrus the king who worships you ..."

In the Decree of Cyrus (Ezra 1:1-4) in 538 BC, he made recognition of Yahweh (1:2), and permitted the house of the God of Israel in Jerusalem to be rebuilt (1:3). The full text of the decree is in Ezra 6:3-5, recorded in in Aramaic, the official language for government and trade in Persian empire.

The first return from exile (after 539 BC) - Zerubbabel

It is estimated that the total population of Jews living in exile in Babylon was between two and three million. However, only around 50,000 of these returned to Judah, motivated by a desire to worship God. The date of the decree of Cyrus was 539 BC, so it is estimated that they arrived back in Judah around 537 BC. To begin with, they rebuilt the altar for burnt offerings, which were first made on the first day of the seventh month while they celebrated the festival of booths (Ezra 3:6). The work on the temple began with the foundations in the second month of the second year after their arrival (Ezra 3:8). This would suggest a date around April or May in 536 BC.

Leadership of returning exiles

Sheshbazzar

Sheshbazzar, the prince of Judah, was given the temple vessels by Cyrus and brought them back in 538 BC (Ezra 1:8). He was appointed governor by Cyrus (Ezra 5:14), and laid the foundations of the temple in 536 BC (Ezra 5:16). Sheshbazzar is not mentioned after 536 BC. Either he died, or possibly returned to Persia. He is not mentioned in the list of returning exiles in Ezra chapter two, who were led by Zerubbabel.

There is a bit of a mystery over the identification of Sheshbazzar. Some people claim that Sheshbazzar was the same person as Shenazzar (1 Chr 3:18), one of the sons of Jeconiah (Jehoiachin), making him the uncle of Zerubbabel. It is also suggested that Sheshbazzar may be the same person as Zerubbabel. However Jewish tradition would indicate that they are two different people. The temple vessels delivered to Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar (1 Esdras 6:18), where both are mentioned together. Both were sent by Cyrus and Persian government. It is also possible that Sheshbazzar was the official leader appointed by the Persians, and Zerubbabel was the unofficial Jewish leader. It should be noted that the father of Sheshbazzar is not identified, which could indicate that he was not a Jew.

Zerubbabel

Zerubbabel, son of Shealtiel, is described as the governor (Hag 1:1,14, 2:2,21). He was the grandson of Jehoiachin, the last Davidic king (Matt 1:13), and is in the Messianic line (Matt 1:12).

Joshua (Jeshua) the high priest

The building of the altar was done by Jeshua (or Joshua) the high priest and Zerubbabel (Ezra 3:1). There was a dual leadership. The political leader was Zerubbabel and the high priest was Jeshua (Joshua). Zechariah has a vision of these two as two olive trees empowered by God’s Spirit (Zech 4:11-14).

Reaction to rebuilding in Jerusalem

With the return of the exiles (golah) Jerusalem again becomes the national centre of worship for the Jews. The people of the land (Am Ha-aretz) resist the building project (Ezra 4:4). These were particularly those left in Samaria, those brought in by the Assyrians (4:2), but these were of mixed religion, who later became identified as Samaritans. These people offered to help, but probably from the wrong motives. They did not have a desire to worship Yahweh, but wanted to gain influence. This was the beginning of the rift between the Jews and Samaritans, which grew into hatred by NT times. The opposition continued through the reigns of Cyrus, Cambyses to Darius (520 BC). There was opposition in reign of Xerxes (485 BC) (4:6), and in the reign of Artaxerxes (about 460 BC) (4:7-23). Also left in the land were the poor of Judah, who had been left behind after the Babylonian exile.

Following the opposition from the local people, who bribed the Persian officials to frustrate the returning exiles, the rebuilding of the temple was abandoned for the next sixteen years until the start of the reign of Darius (522 BC) (Ezra 4:4). As noted above, there were several rebellions during the first years of the reign of Darius. These were supressed by the second year of his reign, when he allowed the rebuilding of the temple, perhaps to gain loyalty from the Jews. This was around the same time that the prophet Haggai gave the first of his four messages on 29th August 520 BC. A few months later he was joined by the prophet Zechariah. The two prophets were successful in urging the people to restart the work on the temple. They began on 21st Sept 520 BC, and the work was completed on 3rd March 516 BC (Ezra 5:1-2).

During this time Tattenai, the governor of the Province beyond the River questioned what was happening in Jerusalem and wrote the King Darius and received a reply (Ezra 5). They obviously did not have a copy of Cyrus' decree in Jerusalem (Ezra 5:3). The correspondence with Artaxerxes (Ezra 4:6-23) is given as an example of the opposition, even though the timing is around sixty years later in 486 BC.

Several cuneiform tablets have been discovered containing the name Tattenai. One is a promissory note dated on the 20th year of Darius I, which can be dated to the 5th June 502 BC exactly. One of the witnesses is a servant of "Tattannu, governor of Across-the-River".

Role of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah

Because of the opposition, the rebuilding work on the temple stopped. God sent the prophets Haggai and Zechariah to encourage them to rebuild. The attitude of the people was to look after the personal needs first. They were not willing to invest in the house of God. Haggai and Zechariah prophesied to Jews in Jerusalem (Ezra 5:1), urging them to build the temple. In response, the elders built and prospered through prophesying of Haggai and Zechariah (6:14). The prophet Zechariah, was son of Iddo, and was of priestly descent (Neh 12:16).

Haggai

The earlier prophets promised a great return from exile, which led to high expectations. The hardships they found when they returned to the land led to frustration. Their zeal and enthusiasm was lost, to be replaced with disillusionment and despair.

The prophet Haggai shows them that they were experiencing hardship because the temple was neglected (1:9), not the other way round. He also shows that the great expectations of all nations coming to Zion will not immediately be fulfilled, but is still in the future (2:7-9). He predicts that Zerubbabel shall be like the Lord's signet ring (2:23). This sounds almost like a Messianic prophecy, which could perhaps cause some to wonder whether Zerubbabel the one hoped for?

The high expectation of the returning exiles led to frustration. The prophet Haggai stirred up the hope, but explained that the fulfilment will not be in the immediate future.

Zechariah

The prophet Zechariah also urges them to rebuild, saying that the house will be rebuilt, and the city will overflow with prosperity, bringing a hope for a better life (1:16). He predicts that the mountain will be made a plain before Zerubbabel (4:6-7), again perhaps raising the expectation that Zerubbabel will fulfil the expectations. The two leaders (Zerubbabel and Joshua) are the two anointed ones (4:13-14). Following the exile, there was no king, so the priests gained more power, particularly the role of the High Priest. Jerusalem became a spiritual and religious centre, rather than political.

The second return from exile - Ezra (458 BC)

After the completion of the temple in 516 BC, there is almost total silence for nearly sixty years. During this time the events recorded in the Book of Esther took place.

According to the Book of Ezra, Ezra returned in the seventh year of Artaxerxes I (Ezra 7:7-8), which would be 458 BC. He was accompanied by about 1750 people. His aim was to rebuild the religious life of Judah, "For Ezra had set his heart to study the law of the LORD, and to do it, and to teach the statutes and ordinances in Israel" (Ezra 7:10). The ministry of the prophet Malachi was also during this period. Ezra was a very prominent figure in Jewish tradition, but is often ignored in modern Biblical studies. It was during the ministry of Ezra that the canon of Scripture was completed.

Ezra successfully led the people in a renewal of the covenant, appointed priests and brought the holy vessels into the temple (Ezra 8). He also carried out various social reforms, including ending mixed marriages. However his reforms did not last long, and had to be renewed by Nehemiah around 25 years later.

Ezra is not mentioned until the last part of the Book of Nehemiah. It is possible that he returned to Susa after 458 BC, then returned with Nehemiah in 445 BC for the dedication of the rebuilt city walls.

The prophet Malachi

Haggai and Zechariah prophesied from 520 BC. There was then silence until Malachi prophesied in 450 BC. The prophet Malachi addressed the situation that the high hopes remained unfulfilled, which led the people to become disillusioned with Yahweh, so they returned to the same sins as before the exile. Malachi addresses the same sins as Nehemiah 13. The priests are not doing their duty, offering blemished sacrifices (1:6-14), and failing to instruct the people in the law (2:1-9). The ordinary people not taking their religious activities seriously. They are questioning whether it is worth serving God (2:17). They are not paying tithes, which Levites depend on (3:6-10), and asking what the benefits are of obeying the law (3:13-18). There are also problems of adultery and divorce (2:4-16, 3:5), and marriage to foreign women (2:11).

The third return from exile - Nehemiah (445 BC)

Nehemiah

Nehemiah was an official in the Persian government, as cup-bearer to the king (1:11). This showed that he was the most trusted person by the king, as his job was to ensure that the king was not poisoned. The cup-bearer was the keeper of the king's signet ring, and in charge of the administration of accounts. He had to be of handsome appearance and trained in court etiquette. He had to be able to select wine for the king to drink. He was a companion of the the king, acting as a listening ear. He was the official with the closest access to the king who enjoyed the unreserved confidence of the king, and determined who could come into the presence of the king.

Xenophon in his Cryopaedia wrote this about the cup-bearer, "Now it is a well known fact that the cupbearers, when they proffer the cup, draw off some of it with the ladle, pour it into their left hand and swallow it down, so that if they should put poison in, they may not profit from it." (Cryopaedia 1:3:9).

The Persians had a representative of the Hebrews high in the Persian government. This was a good policy to keep the minorities happy. He had a commission from Artaxerxes (2:1-8), with letter (v8), knowing that the governors in the land would oppose him (v7,10). Nehemiah later became the governor in Jerusalem (445 - 432 BC) (5:14). He would not accept a salary, setting a good example to the people. He also gave a banquet for the poor, at a time when social tensions were rising between rich and poor (5:5).

Nehemiah's return to Jerusalem

The correspondence recorded between Judah and Artaxerxes I (Ezra 4:7-23) are set during the rebuilding of the walls, "They (the Jews) are rebuilding that rebellious and wicked city; they are finishing the walls and repairing the foundations. (Ezra 4:12). In response, Artaxerxes commanded that the building should cease (Ezra 4:17-22). When Nehemiah heard about this he took the bold step of asking the king that he should be allowed to go back to Jerusalem and complete the rebuilding of the walls. He first heard the news from Jerusalem in the month of Chislev in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes (around November or December 446 BC). He approached the king a few months later in the month of Nisan (around March or April 445 BC).

Nehemiah was probably back in Jerusalem by August 445 BC. The walls were finished 52 days later on the 25th day of Elul (around 2nd October 445 BC). Nehemiah was appointed governor of Judah by Artaxerxes (Neh 5:14). He remained governor for twelve years (20th year to 32nd year of Artaxerxes). Like Ezra he tried to rebuild the moral and spiritual life of the people, but with limited success. As soon has he returned to Persia, the people reverted to foreign business practices and intermarriage with foreigners.

It is not certain for how long Nehemiah was away in Persia. It seems that he was reappointed governor for an unknown length of time between 432 and 425 BC. By 407 BC, according to the Elephantine papyrus, there was another governor in Judah named Bigvai.

Who came back to Jerusalem first?

There are differences of opinion over the dates of Ezra and Nehemiah's returns. It is strange that how little Nehemiah is mentioned in the Book of Ezra, and how little Ezra is mentioned in the Book of Nehemiah, when both are prominent leaders, and have the same goal of re-establishing the religious life of Judah.

The traditional view is that Ezra returned during the reign of Artaxerxes I in 458 BC, before Nehemiah. Others suggest that Ezra returned with Nehemiah in 428 BC during his second period of serving as governor, but there is very little evidence for this. Some even date the return of Ezra during the reign of Artaxerxes II, around 398 BC, many years after Nehemiah.

There some valid questions about the traditional view. One is that Ezra 9:9 refers to Jerusalem having a wall, some 13 years before Nehemiah rebuilt the walls. It is possible, however, that some work was done on the walls, but they were destroyed following the edict of Artaxerxes (Ezra 4:21).

Opposition to Nehemiah

Sanballat the Horonite

Sanballat was probably from Upper or Lower Beth Horon, 12 miles (20 km) north-west of Jerusalem. He became the chief political opponent of Nehemiah (2:10,19, 4:1,7, 6:1-2,5,12,14, 13:28). According to the Elephantine Letters he was the governor of Samaria. He brought the army of Samaria (Neh 4:2). One of the sons of Jehoiada, son of the High Priest Eliashib was son-in-law of Sanballat (13:28).

Tobiah the Ammonite

Tobiah had an official position in the Persian empire, probably as governor of Ammon, to the east of Judah. However he had a Jewish name, meaning 'Yahweh is good'. He too was related to the High Priest Eliashib (13:4), so was able to keep his furniture in the temple. His influence was such that, "many in Judah were bound by oath to him" (6:18). Both Sanballat and Tobiah were related in some way to Eliashib the High Priest (13:4,28)

Geshem the Arab

Geshem is found in other documents as the king of Kedar. A silver bowl found in Tell el-Maskhuta, Egypt in the Brooklyn Museum in New York has an inscription, "Ilwhat Qainu son of Geshem, King of Qedar, brought in offering to Han-Ilat"

Why did they oppose Nehemiah

Nehemiah was a threat to them politically. They would have seen his wall building as a declaration of revolt against Persian rule (2:19-20).

Roles of Nehemiah and Ezra

Nehemiah and Ezra had separate and contrasting roles in the re-established nation of Judah. The focus of Nehemiah was more outward, concentrating on the rebuilding of the city walls, and the political situation. The focus of Ezra was more inward, concentrating on the religious situation and on the law of the LORD. In some ways they mirror the dual roles of Zerubabbel and Joshua the high priest.

Understanding of the future in post-exilic times

Through the period leading up to the exile and into the post-exilic period there were two different ways of looking at the future.

1. Restoration

The first view was of restoration. This was the main understanding of the pre-exilic prophets. For them, the hope of the future was of the restoration to the land following the exile. Their understanding of hope included harmony between God and his created world. Judgement was temporal and not final. It was within history, and could re-occur depending on the response of the people. The purpose of judgement on Jerusalem was to discipline his people. Prophecies against foreign nations had the purpose of showing that God’s justice would be done for the wrong-doing of the nations that had oppressed Israel. The end of the world would be a transformation to complete harmony.

2. Transformation

Transformation was more apocalyptic and became increasingly important in the post-exilic period. The people had returned to the land, but were still struggling and being oppressed by foreign powers. The focus of judgement changed to a single final judgement at the end of history, and prophecies against foreign nations faded out. In this understanding, the final judgment would be followed by a new creation and the end of physical existence.

The more gnostic view of the separation of the spiritual and the physical had its roots in this way of thinking. When taken to extreme, God was spiritual and good, compared with the physical creation being evil.

1. Ezra and Nehemiah - the view of the majority

Ezra and Nehemiah focussed on restoration. If people would obey the law of Moses, then a perfect community could be achieved. This approach has the danger of harshness and legalism. It was anti-eschatological, believing that hope is seen in the present, rather than in the future. The exiles were eager to return to Jerusalem because they believed that the predictions of the prophets of a glorious future would be fulfilled in the return from exile, when the Messiah would come.

The focus of Nehemiah and Ezra was on restructuring the community and society to create a perfect community under God (Neh 12:44 - 13:3). They were eager to obey the law of Moses and exclude foreigners from society (13:1). They re-established the system of temple worship according to that created by David and Asaph (12:46). The reign of David was seen as the golden age of Israel. The incident of Tobiah’s furniture showed Nehemiah’s eagerness to cleanse the temple of anything foreign, so the temple could be the true centre of the new community (13:4-9).

Hope not realised

Much of this hope for a glorious future was not realised, resulting in disillusionment. There were still difficulties, particularly opposition from enemies, and the sin of the people. At the end of his book Nehemiah expressed his zeal to keep the law and to cleanse from anything foreign, “Thus I cleansed them from everything foreign, and I established the duties of the priests and Levites, each in his work; and I provided for the wood offering, at appointed times, and for he first fruits.” (13:30). However he still complains about the half-heartedness of the Jews. He complains about the failure to provide for the Levites (13:10-14), keeping the Sabbath (13:15-22), and about mixed marriages (13:23-27). The purpose of each of these outward measures was to maintain the distinctiveness of the Jews. Each time he concludes with “Remember me, O my God” (13:14,22,31).

2. The apocalyptics - the view of the minority

When the foundation of the temple was laid, many people rejoiced, but others wept when they compared it with Solomon’s temple (Ezra 3:12). It seems that they could not see what was probably quite a shabby temple as being a fulfilment of the predictions of the prophets of a glorious future for Israel. The growing sense of disillusionment began to shift the hope for the future to something beyond this present world. For some that led to a lack of responsibility for the present world.

Because of this tendency, following the return from exile, the apocalyptics were open to strange influences, including the dualistic view from Persian thinking. This splits the physical from the spiritual, seeing that the spiritual was good, and physical was evil, which is the foundation of Gnosticism. They looked for only a spiritual fulfilment after this world, because the physical was evil.

The more apocalyptic view was expressed by Zechariah, particularly in his two oracles, or burdens (Zech 9-14). Zechariah speaks of another day coming, after 520 BC, when Jerusalem will be plundered and exiled (Zech 14). Some of the words of the earlier prophets had not yet been fulfilled, so a greater judgement was still yet to come, which will be a bigger catastrophe than 586 BC (14:3-4). The earlier predictions of the restoration of Jerusalem seem not to have been fulfilled by Ezra and Nehemiah, so they look for a fuller spiritual or eternal fulfilment in the future.

Two streams

From the time of Ezra and Nehemiah onwards two streams developed. One is of a theocracy, that God will rule on the earth as it is now. This is the view supported by Ezra and Nehemiah, including Haggai and Zechariah exhorting Jews to rebuild the temple (Ezra 5:1). This is seen in the books of Haggai, and the first half of Zechariah (Zech 1-8).

The other stream is apocalyptic, that God will dramatically transform the earth. They repeat and rephrase the earlier prophets as they are not seen as being fulfilled in the restoration following the exile. This is seen in the second half of Zechariah (Zech 9-14), which looks beyond the theocracy to a dramatic future.

A tension between theocracy and apocalyptic

Both viewpoints are expressed in the Hebrew canon, with both held onto in tension. During the inter-testamental period both views moved to the extremes. However in the canon of the OT, the extremes of each side are rejected. The theocratic world of the Maccabees was seen as too worldly, and the apocalyptic world of books like 1 Enoch were beyond the realms of reality. The books of the prophets between the 9th century and the 5th century were accepted.

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