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Introduction

Phoenicia occupied the area on the eastern Mediterranean coast covering the modern nation of Lebanon and the southern half of the coastal area of Syria, stretching for about 240 km (150 miles) from north to south.

It is only in the NT that Phoenicia is specifically mentioned. Christians fled to Phoenicia and other places following the martyrdom of Stephen (Acts 11:19). Paul and Barnabas travelled through Phoenicia on their way to attend the council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:3). On his return from his third missionary journey, Paul landed at Tyre on a ship sailing to Phoenicia, and met with the Christians there (Acts 21:2-3). In the early first century Phoenicia was referred to as ‘the sea coast’ and ‘the district of Tyre and Sidon’ (Mt 15:21, Lk 6:17). Their people were called ‘Syrophoenicians’ (Mk 7:26).

In OT times, the Hebrews referred to Phoenicia as ‘Canaan’, as Isaiah does in his oracle against Tyre (Is 23:11). Phoenicia was normally referred to by using the name of its main cities, Tyre and Sidon. For most of their history, Phoenicia was a loose collection of city-states, with little political cohesion, apart from the reign of king Hiram I. Other cities included Arvad, Simyra, Gebal (Byblos), Berut (Beirut) and Zarephath.

Tyre

Tyre was the most important port on the coast of Phoenicia, about 40 km (25 miles) south of Sidon. It had two harbours, one on a small island off the coast, and the ‘old port’ on the mainland, where the major part of the city was located.

Sidon

Sidon, or Zidon, was an important walled city and port, now the modern city of Saida. It had two harbours, and was divided into Greater Sidon (Josh 11:8) and Lesser Sidon.

Phoenician history

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Phoenicians migrated to the Mediterranean from the Erythraean Sea (probably the Persian Gulf, or Indian Ocean) (History 1:1, 7:89). They founded the city of Sidon, the first city of Phoenica, and developed extensive sea-trading around the Mediterranean and beyond. Tyre was founded around 2700 BC. Phoenician ships are shown on Egyptian reliefs from the time of Pharaoh Sahure of the fifth dynasty, around 2500 BC. By this time there was significant trade in timber between Phoenicia and Egypt. They created colonies along the coast, selecting safe harbours which were easily defended. These included Joppa, Dor (Judges 1:27-31), Acra, and Ugarit (Ras Shamra). From this colonies, they dominated the local populations.

Egyptian control

During the 18th and 19th dynasties, Phoenicia was under the control of Egypt. Tuthmosis III claimed to have captured Arvad around 1485 BC. In the Amarna letters written from Byblos and Tyre to Amenophis III around 1400 BC, there are signs of tensions with Egyptian control, and Sidon appeared to be independent.

Around 1200 BC Phoenicia was invaded by the ‘sea peoples’ who destroyed Byblos, Arvad and Ugarit. The Sidonians fled to Tyre, which became the main port. Isaiah called Tyre the virgin daughter of Sidon (Is 23:12). Tyre became a strong fortified city on the border of the land allocated to Asher (Josh 19:29). It was later described as a fortress (2 Sam 24:7).

Hiram I

After control from Egypt declined, Phoenicia became its strongest during the reign of Hiram I (approx 980 - 947 BC). He made commercial treaties with David, providing cedar trees, carpenters and masons to make David a house (2 Sam 5:11). Hiram was always a friend to David, and this continued into the reign of Solomon, who requested help to build the temple in Jerusalem. Hiram made a treaty with Solomon and supplied Solomon with wood (particularly cedar and cypress), stone and craftsmen in return for supplying wheat and oil each year (1 Kg 5:1-12, 2 Chr 2:3-16). It is possible that Solomon married the daughter of Hiram as part of the treaty, as Solomon did marry women from Sidonia (1 Kg 11:1).

King Hiram sent a skilled caster of bronze, also named Hiram, who cast the pillars of bronze for Solomon’s palace. This Hiram was the son of a widow from the tribe of Naphtali (1 Kg 17:13), or Dan (2 Chr 2:13). His father was from Tyre, making Hiram half Israelite and half Phoenician. His father and had been an artisan in bronze, full of the skill, intelligence and knowledge in working bronze (1 Kg 7:14).

The golden age of Tyre

At this time, Tyre became famous for their skills at ship-building and seafaring, becoming one of the first seafaring cultures. They manufactured glass, and the expensive scarlet-purple Tyrian dye made from the murex snail found in sea near Tyre. Their merchant princes sailed all over the Mediterranean, and even out into the Atlantic. Phoenician ships sailed down the coast of West Africa, and it is possible that they sailed all the way round the whole continent of Africa many hundreds of years earlier than European explorers. It is known that Phoenician traders regularly sailed to Cornwall in the UK, which was one of the few sources of tin ore, used to make bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). Hiram also established colonies around the Mediterranean, including Sardinia, Spain, Cyprus and Turkey. These were later followed by Carthage, which became the most important Phoenician colony, and great threat to Rome, as well as Sicily, Tunisia, and around the Black Sea.

Ezion-geber

King Hiram also provided ships and sailors which enabled Solomon to establish a fleet of ships at Ezion-geber on the Red Sea Gulf of Aqaba to generate a huge trade to the east (1 Kg 9:27-28), including gold, silver, ivory, apes and peacocks (1 Kg 10:22, 2 Chr 9:21). In payment Solomon gave twenty villages to Hiram in Galilee, but these did not please Hiram (1 Kg 9:10-13).

The mystery of 120 talents of gold

Immediately following Hiram’s rejection of the villages it states that Hiram sent Solomon 120 talents of gold (1 Kg 9:14). The mystery is why Hiram would send a large amount of gold for villages that did not please him. There may be an explanation in the writings of Josephus.

In his account immediately following Hiram’s rejection of the villages, Josephus explains that Hiram and Solomon were friends who swapped puzzles and riddles, “Moreover, the king of Tyre sent sophisms and enigmatical sayings to Solomon, and desired he would solve them, and free them from the ambiguity that was in them. Now so sagacious and understanding was Solomon, that none of these problems were too hard for him; but he conquered them all by his reasonings, and discovered their hidden meaning, and brought it to light.” (Josephus Ant 8.5.3).

“... there was another passion, a philosophic inclination of theirs, which cemented the friendship that was betwixt them; for they sent mutual problems to one another, with a desire to have them unriddled by each other; wherein Solomon was superior to Hirom, as he was wiser than he in other respects: and many of the epistles that passed between them are still preserved among the Tyrians” (Josephus Against Apion 1:17).

Josephus also explains that they agreed to pay a great deal of money if they were unable to solve the puzzles. He quotes from a Phoenician historian called Dius, “They say further, that Solomon, when he was king of Jerusalem, sent problems to Hirom to be solved, and desired he would send others back for him to solve, and that he who could not solve the problems proposed to him should pay money to him that solved them. And when Hirom had agreed to the proposals, but was not able to solve the problems, he was obliged to pay a great deal of money, as a penalty for the same. As also they relate, that one Abdemon, a man of Tyre, did solve the problems, and propose others which Solomon could not solve, upon which he was obliged to repay a great deal of money to Hirom” (Josephus Ant 8.5.3).

This may imply that the mysterious statement about the payment of 120 talents of gold has nothing to do with the villages, but is as explained by Josephus.

Ethbaal and Jezebel

Ethbaal was a priest-king who overthrew the king of Tyre. He strengthened the alliance with the northern kingdom of Israel by making a treaty which involved his daughter Jezebel marrying Ahab, king of Israel (1 Kg 16:31). This had disastrous consequences for Israel, and later for Judah also. “And as if it had been a light thing for him (Ahab) to walk in the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat, he took as his wife Jezebel daughter of King Ethbaal of the Sidonians, and went and served Baal and worshipped him. He erected an altar for Baal in the house of Baal, which he built in Samaria.” (1 Kg 16:31-32). Ethbaal was a priest of Ba’al, so the worship of the Phoenician Baals within Israel was greatly increased.

This is the setting for the ministry of Elijah, who God called to oppose the worship of Baal, climaxing in the contest on Mount Carmel over which god could bring fire down from heaven (1 Kg 18:20-40). Before this, Elijah fled to Zarephath, which was controlled by Sidon, where God protected and provided for him (1 Kg 17:9).

Assyria

As Assyria expanded to the west, Phoenicia came under their control for about 200 years. Ashurnasirpal II (884-859 BC) received tribute from Tyre, Sidon, Gebal and Arvad of garments, dyed cloth, precious metals, carved ivory and wood. After Shalmaneser II besieged Damascus, he marched to the coast at the Dog river in 841 BC. The gifts sent by Tyre and Sidon are shown on the Balawat Gates in the British Museum.

By 803 BC, Adad-nirari III claimed Tyre and Sidon among his vassals. Around 741 BC Tiglath-pileser besieged Arpad when kings of Tyre and Byblos sent tribute. King Menahem of Israel also submitted to him at this time. The Assyrian kings sent their Rabshakeh to collect timber and goods as taxes from the Assyrian officials in charge of Tyre and Sidon. Tyre and Sidon joined in an alliance against attacks from Tiglath-pileser in 734 BC. Sennacherib carried Phoenician prisoners off to Nineveh to build his new palace after his defeat outside Jerusalem in 701 BC.

Sidon remained independent until sacked by Esarhaddon. Tyre, ruled by Ba’ali, made a treaty with Esarhaddon, and controlled other towns including Arvad, Acre, Dor, Gebal and Mt Lebanon. After revolts encouraged by Tirhakah of Egypt, Tyre was besieged and conquered. The rulers of the cities were taken to Calah to work as labourers building Esarhaddon’s palace. Ashurbanipal continued fighting against Phoenicia in 665 BC, taking the daughters of king Ba’ali as concubines and charging heavy tribute.

After Ashurbanipal, Assyria declined so the cities of Phoenica regained their independence and trade with Egypt. Colonies were established in Algeria, Spain and Morocco between the seventh and fifth centuries BC, before the Phoenicians were finally defeated by the Etruscans in 535 BC.

Babylon

Several prophets predicted that Tyre and Sidon, along with other nations will become subject to Babylon (Jer 25:22, 27:1-11, Ezek 26:1 - 28:19). Tyre was besieged for 13 years by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (585 - 573 BC). This is predicted in detail by Ezekiel (Ezek 26:1 - 28:26). King Ithobaal was taken prisoner and removed to Babylon, who appointed judges over the city. Tyre retained some of its autonomy, trading with Egypt and providing fish to Jerusalem (Neh 13:16).

Alexander the Great

Alexander laid siege to the island port of Tyre for seven months. He finally captured it after he constructed a causeway linking it to the mainland, which is still there today. His siege caused great destruction and loss of life. However, Tyre and Sidon recovered and became prosperous in the Hellenistic Seleucid kingdom and in Roman times.

Visit by Jesus

The Gospels record that Jesus visited the area around Tyre and Sidon during his Galilean ministry. It he here that he met the Gentile Syro-Phoenician woman, and healed her daughter who was tormented by a demon (Mt 15:21-28, Mk 7:24-31). Many people from Tyre and Sidon travelled to Galilee to listen to Jesus (Mk 3:8, Lk 6:17). Jesus gave Tyre and Sidon as a positive example compared to the towns of Chorazin and Bethsaida which did not repent (Mt 11:21-22, Lk 10:13-15).

Phoenician religion

The Phoenicians worshipped many gods with a particular attention to Ba’al, who was also called Melek, meaning ‘king’. The influence of this idolatry in Israel was countered by Elijah (1 Kg 18-19). They also worshipped the sun-god Saps and Reshep (Mikkal) the god of the underworld. They also had fertility cults which honoured Anat (Astarte, or Ashtart). The mixing with Egyptian influence led to a cult of Adonis (probably Osiris) and Tammuz (Ezek 8:14). Other gods included Eshmun (Asklepios), the god of healing, and Melqart.

Prophetic oracles against Tyre

Several of the prophets gave oracles against Tyre. Many speak against the wealth gained from her trade, and the unjust way they treated their neighbouring nations. The longest oracles are given by Isaiah and Ezekiel.

Isaiah

Isaiah’s final oracle against the nations is for Tyre and Sidon, the port cities of the Phoenicians, made wealthy by their extensive trade (Is 23:1-18). They too will be overthrown, their harbours and fortresses destroyed, and their trade brought to an end because of their pride. However there will be restoration after seventy years, when the trade will recommence, but it will be to honour the Lord.

Ezekiel

Ezekiel also has a section of oracles against the nations (25:1 - 32:32). After words against Ammon, Moab, Edom and Philistia, there are words against Tyre (26:1 - 28:19), and uniquely a short word specifically against Sidon (28:20-23).

Tyre will be punished by Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon because they rejoiced over the fall of Jerusalem. Tyre will become a bare rock where fishermen spread their nets. They are also condemned for their arrogance, their shipping will be wrecked and destroyed and the riches from their extensive trading ended. The proud heart claiming to be a god, and accumulating great riches be brought down. It is often taught that this section describes the so-called ‘Fall of Satan’ before the creation of Adam. However the arrogance described fits well with the king of Tyre, Ethbaal III (c.590 - c.573), and the city of Tyre at the time of Ezekiel.

Against Sidon, Ezekiel predicts that God will punish them by pestilence and bloodshed so that God will be glorified (28:20-23).

Joel

Joel condemned Tyre for taking silver and gold from Israel and placing it in their temples, as well as selling the people of Judah to the Greeks (Joel 3:4-8).

Amos

Amos condemned Tyre for delivering entire communities to Edom, and not remembering the covenant of kinship (Amos 1:9-10).

Zechariah

Zechariah begins his oracle with word against several nations including Tyre and Sidon, which he says are very wise, and Tyre has built a rampart, and heaped up silver and gold (Zech 9:2-4).

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